A parliamentary monarchy is a complex system of government that combines features of a monarchy and a democracy, which makes it difficult to classify unambiguously. Although the presence of a monarch who passes power by inheritance is a feature of a monarchical system, his powers are strictly regulated by the constitution and controlled by an elected parliament. At the same time, the actual governance of the country is carried out by a government formed by parliament and accountable to it, which brings this form of government closer to republican models [9].

The criteria for classifying parliamentary monarchies proposed by different researchers vary. The key factor determining these differences is the degree of involvement of the monarch in the political process.

Despite attempts to classify parliamentary monarchies, a universal and generally accepted system has not yet been developed. The specifics of historical development, political culture and constitutional structure of each country determine significant differences that prevent the creation of a single typology.

The classification of parliamentary monarchies is complicated by the variability of the mechanisms of interaction between the monarch, parliament and government. Existing classification schemes often do not reflect the diversity of political systems, cultural characteristics and historical trajectories, which creates methodological difficulties and gives rise to disagreements in the academic community.

For the analysis of parliamentary monarchy, it is fundamentally important to establish a precise definition of this term. Theoretical models of parliamentary monarchy have undergone significant changes due to the development of political institutions and the transformation of social structures.

A key element in the analysis of parliamentary monarchy is the study of the balance of power between the monarch and parliament, as well as the influence of other government bodies. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the historical conditions and unique features inherent in each specific national model.

The evolution of political systems in Europe towards constitutional monarchies is a complex and multi-stage process. The limitation of monarchical absolutism and the expansion of parliamentary powers became possible due to the complex influence of socio-economic factors, revolutionary events and the institutionalization of democratic principles [5].

The key models of parliamentary monarchy development are the British, Belgian and Dutch, each of which is characterized by specific features determined by the historical, cultural and political context. The constitutional and legal framework of a parliamentary monarchy regulates the distribution of state power, determines the legal status of the monarch in the system of state administration and establishes the procedure for his interaction with parliament. In most cases, the monarch performs primarily representative functions, acting as a symbol of national unity. At the same time, in some cases, the monarch retains certain prerogatives in the areas of foreign policy and defense. Mechanisms of interaction with parliament may include the monarch’s right to appoint a prime minister, dissolve parliament and approve legislative acts.

In the framework of this study, a comparative analysis of the interpretations of the features of a parliamentary monarchy presented in textbooks on the theory of state and law by five different authors was conducted.

An analysis of the works of different authors revealed common features of a parliamentary monarchy, but at the same time some discrepancies in their understanding were discovered.

We identified some similarities in the works of the authors of several textbooks, namely Klishas A.A., Bakarjiev Ya.V., Gavrikov V.P., Komarov S.A. and Lazarev V.V.

1. «The government is formed from representatives of a certain party (or parties) that received the majority of votes in the elections to parliament» [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [9].
2. «The power of the monarch in the legislative, executive and judicial spheres is symbolic, in fact, absent, he «reigns» but does not rule» [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [9]. 3. «The government, according to the constitution, is responsible not to the monarch, but to the parliament» [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [9].

I also came across certain differences present in the textbook by Bakadzhiev Ya.V.

1. «The leader of the party with the largest number of parliamentary seats heads the government and becomes the de facto head of the executive branch» [3].
2. «The leader of the party with the largest number of parliamentary seats becomes the head of state» [3].
3. «Legislative acts are adopted by parliament and formally signed by the monarch» [3].

Based on all of the above, we can conclude that there are «common» features of parliamentary monarchies and «additional» ones. Each author highlights his own «additional» features in order to classify a parliamentary monarchy.

Now let’s look at the powers of the monarchs of Great Britain and Japan and compare them with the above features. A set of powers known as the Royal Prerogative is formally vested in the British monarch [1].

Here are some of the powers of the British monarch:

1. Opening sessions of Parliament

In the UK, supreme power rests with Parliament, not the monarch. However, the monarch retains certain powers, including the right to open the annual parliamentary session in May, marking the beginning of a new political year [1], [11].

2. Making laws

Parliament makes laws, but they only come into force with the monarch’s approval. Parliamentarians seek «Royal Assent» — the monarch’s signature, which signifies their agreement to the law [1], [11].

3. Appointing ministers of the Crown

While most government positions in the UK are filled through elections, the monarch has the power to appoint key figures, such as ministers of the Crown, advisers, and cabinet ministers [1], [11].

4. Pardon criminals

The head of state, at his own discretion, has the right to pardon convicted persons. In modern realities, this prerogative is rarely used. Historically, pardon served to cancel death sentences, which are currently not applied. In addition to the complete abolition of punishment, pardon can also be expressed in reducing the term of imprisonment [1], [11].

5. Issue/withdraw passports

The issuance of each British passport is sanctioned by the monarch, and he can also deprive a citizen of this document [1], [11].

6. Command the armed forces

In the UK, the monarch is the head of all armed forces. The oath of allegiance to the monarch is a mandatory ritual for everyone who joins the ranks of the British army [1], [11].

7. Declare war

Only the monarch in the UK has the power to declare war on other states [1], [11].

8. Dissolve parliament

The monarch has the power to stop the current parliament and call new elections if he deems it necessary [1], [11].

9. Grant honorary titles

The British monarch has the right to personally award honorary titles to outstanding citizens in recognition of their merits. The basis for the award can be a wide range of achievements, from charity and art to scientific discoveries. The most common of these titles are knight (sir) and dame [1], [11].

Let’s consider each of the prerogatives separately and compare them with the features of a parliamentary monarchy.

1. Open sessions of parliament

In general, this procedure is purely formal and ceremonial, so there is nothing unusual about it.

2. Give legal force to laws

The monarch can reject a law proposed by parliament, and therefore have power over it. A parliamentary monarchy excludes this.

3. Appoint ministers of the Crown

This prerogative directly affects the monarchy. The monarch can independently appoint a minister without consulting parliament, which means that the monarch does not completely lose power. This also contradicts a parliamentary monarchy.

4. Pardon criminals

The monarch can influence the judicial system bypassing parliament, reducing the criminal’s sentence or pardoning them. This also gives the monarch power independent of parliament.

5. Issue/remove passports

The right to withdraw a passport from a citizen means depriving him of the privileges of possessing this very passport. Which can also be done bypassing parliament.

6. Command the armed forces
7. Declare war

These privileges directly affect the country’s foreign policy, and mean that parliament does not control this part.

8. Dissolve parliament

This prerogative is a direct influence on parliament, changing its structure. This completely contradicts the characteristics of a parliamentary monarchy.

9. Grant honorary titles

Honorary titles are the status of a citizen. This means that the monarch can change the status of any person he deems necessary. This also contradicts the statement «the monarch reigns, but does not rule.»

To summarize, we can see that the powers of the monarch include such prerogatives that contradict the characteristics of a parliamentary monarchy, namely: «the monarch reigns, but does not rule.» Looking at his powers, it is quite possible to conclude that the monarch of Great Britain is endowed with more power than a parliamentary monarchy allows itself.

Articles 3 and 4 of the Constitution of Japan clearly delineate the role of the Emperor, depriving him of any powers in the sphere of state power. Any actions of the Emperor related to state affairs are carried out solely on the basis of consultation and with the approval of the Cabinet, which bears full responsibility for these actions [2]. Below are some key factors that help to understand why Japan may deviate from the generally accepted idea of ​​a parliamentary monarchy:

1. In modern Japan, the Emperor, currently Naruhito, is primarily a symbol of the state. Unlike monarchs in some other countries with a parliamentary system, he does not have political power and performs mainly ceremonial duties.
2. The Constitution of Japan, dated 1947, enshrines the Emperor’s status as a «symbol of the state and the unity of the people.» This provision of constitutional law distinguishes the powers of the Emperor from those of the head of state, defining his role as symbolic.
3. The Japanese parliament, or National Assembly, has a bicameral structure consisting of the House of Representatives and the House of Councilors. At the same time, the key role in the legislative process is assigned to the parliament, which is formed through direct elections. The Prime Minister, who heads the government, is elected from among the deputies of the lower house, the House of Representatives.
4. In Japanese politics, the key role is played by the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which has long been the ruling party. Its dominant position has a significant impact on political processes and government decision-making.
5. The Japanese monarchy, which has its roots deep in history, has undergone significant transformations. A particularly important period was the post-World War II era, when Japan transitioned to a democratic form of government, which significantly affected the political system and, as a result, the role of the emperor [8]. Thus, unique historical features, an emphasis on the symbolic role of the emperor and a political structure in which real power is concentrated in parliament and the government make Japan’s system special. Although the country is formally a parliamentary constitutional monarchy, its structure differs from the classical understanding of this type of government.